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یہ آسماں جو حیرتی ہے اک ترے جمال کا

یہ آسماں جو حیرتی ہے اک ترے جمال کا
یہ حسن کیا ہے آئنہ ہے خوبی و کمال کا

یہ رنگ و نور لے رہے ہیں رہ گزار سے تری
گلاب ہو کہ چاند ہو کہ شمس ہو زوال کا

میں جنتوں کا تھا مکیں تری نگاہِ ناز سے
تاحشر مجھ سے امتحاں لیا ہے خدو خال کا

نظر سے وہ پلا کے مجھ سے کہتے ہیں کہ جائو اب
کہاں یہ حوصلہ سہوں میں لمس اُس جلال کا

میں اٹھ کے لڑکھڑا گیا تھا جب فضاؔ نے یہ کہا
یہ صورِ اسرافیل ہے، نہیں یہ پل وصال کا

Pleasure versus Virtue Ethics in The Light of Aristotelians and the Utilitarianism of John Stuart Mills and Jeremy Bentham

The question of the end of morality is certainly as old as moral speculation itself. It is this question that prompted Aristotle speculating on moral or character virtue. Moral question is properly a human question since only human beings are expected to act in a given way and are subject to praise and reward or blame and punishment. We should remember that also God and angels are expected to act in a given way, but that would, strictly speaking, be the subject of moral theology and revelation, since without revelation depending only on reason, we cannot examine the acts of God and angels in order to determine how they should act. In short, it is only human beings who can be judged to act morally or immorally if we depend only on human reason, without the support of revelation. In the whole work, Stuart Mills and Jeremy Bentham stick on happiness, though each differ in approaches. Consequentialists are after the greatest happiness of the greatest number, by advocating on the struggle to that which may make man happy and avoid evil by all means. Aristotle on his side is on eudaimonism, where man is found to be happy but moral happy. Happiness for Aristotle should be reasonable, morally good and means should be maintained. This research is analytical by nature, where both qualitative and analytical methods have been implemented throughout the work. The work has been successful though some challenges could not be avoided. Finally, in doing or acting, man should observe virtue; and this is always doing good and avoiding evil.  

A Study of Fungal Communities Associated With Oak Forests of Swat and Dir Districts, Kpk, Pakistan

The present research work focuses on the study of ectomycorrhizal fungal communities associated with oak forests of Swat and Dir Districts, KPK, Pakistan. During the study, analyses of above ground and below ground fungal taxa associated with oaks were based on different molecular markers, along with morpho-anatomical characterization. Seven sampling areas viz. Kalam (stand 1), Shawar Valley (stand 2), Toa (stand 3), Sultanr (stand 4), Lamati (stand 5), Jetkot (stand 6) and Biar (stand 7) were selected in temperate areas of Swat and Dir Districts, KPK, Pakistan. For ectomycorrhizal communities study, 50 soil cores were randomly taken from each stand. Ectomycorrhizal fungi were identified by morphotyping and sequence analyses of ITS, LSU and SSU of DNA. For above ground communities study, collected sporocarps were morpho anatomically and phylogenetically characterized. A total of 256 fungal taxa were identified belonging to 58 genera. Among these, 223 species belonging to 41 genera and 28 families were designated as ectomycorrhizal. Ascomycota was represented by 9 families and Basidiomycota by 19 families. Above ground taxa was represented by 53 species belonging to 24 genera and 15 families. From below ground, 183 taxa were identified belonging to 33 genera and 25 families. Thirteen taxa were found from above ground as fruit bodies with their counter parts from below ground in the form of ectomycorrhizal morphotypes. The 34 species were found non mycorrhizal, 28 of which were collected as fruiting bodies belonging to 17 genera. The ectomycorrhizal community consisted of a few frequent and many rare fungal taxa. The community was analyzed in term of alpha, beta and gamma diversity by different diversity indices. Effects of edaphic, climatic factors as well as soil factors on fungal communities were also analyzed. From stand 1, Hortiboletus followed by Russula constituted the major part of above ground community while Russula and Cortinarius dominated the below ground community. From stand 2, Scleroderma was found to be most abundant, dominant and diverse genus. From stand 3, Rhizopogon and Cortinarius were found abundant as fruiting bodies while Amanita and Pachyphloeus dominated the below ground communities. From stand 4, Lactarius and Tricholoma were dominating above ground community and below ground community was dominated by Xerocomus. From stand 5, Russula was common in form of fruiting bodies along with Amanita as well as with Lactarius in the form of morphotypes. From stand 6 and 7, Scleroderma dominated above ground community while Russula dominanted below ground component of community. It was observed that host species and age, soil pH, soil nutrients and soil organic matter influenced the distribution pattern of fungal species. The stand 3 (Toa) with high pH represented hyperdiverse fungal taxa in form of fruiting bodies. The sampling stand 1 (Kalam) with maximum amount of P, EC and organic matter showed maximum frequency and colonization of fungal taxa from below ground community. These findings were supported by Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) and Nonmetric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) analysis. These results indicate high fungal diversity associated with these forests. This hyperdiversity of taxa is due to many factors as these forests are natural forests of hundreds of years old, undisturbed, lack any anthropogenic activities and without undergoing any disaster which support such a divers communities associated with these forests. This study focused on parameters for community studies in terms of abundance, diversity, frequency and dominance to describe the distribution pattern of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Mopho-anatomical and molecular data deposited in different repositories could be utilized as a source of perspective for further taxonomic and phylogenetic work. The generated data during this study would helpful in forest and nursery management as well as restoration of rapidly declining oak forests to conserve them.
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